DELHI
SULTANATE
NATURE OF STATE, SOCIAL
STRUCTURE, POSITION OF WOMEN
History is
the record of events since the beggining of civilisation till date. But for
sake
convenience it has been divided into three phases, that
is Ancient Period, Medieval Period
One of
the prominent characteristics of Medieval Indian History is the advent of Islam and the establishment of Delhi Sultante. The Muslims
acquired political supremacy and continued to rule over the land for quite a length of
time. The first phase of Muslim rule was for long 320 years from 1206 A.D. to 1526 A.D. when the
sultans were the ultimate authority.
Naturally the period came to be known as Sultanate
period. The sultans were the rulers of Slave Dynasty, Khiliji Dynasty, Tughlaq Dynasty, Syaid
and Lodi Dynasty. As the sultans of
these dynasties were Turko-Afghan Muslims, the period is
also branded as Turko-Afghan rule of Delhi Sultanate.
During
the long span of 320 years, the sultans of Delhi had not only extended the boundary of their kingdom to the south, they had also
given a proper shape to the political
system. And this system was based upon the rules of
Islam. Therefore, one can very well observe the Islamic trends in contemporary polity, social
structure and economy. Even after the decline of Sultanate period, certain features of
sultanate administration were prevalent during the Mughal period.
NATURE OF STATE
The state
was not secular during the sultanate period. It was a Theocratic State based upon the religion of the sultan. Islam was the state
religion, above all the religion of the sultan.
That is why religion was an integral part of polity and
politics.
The
sultans of Delhi had declared the state as an 'Islamic State' which was
indirectly a Theocratic State as per rules laid down by Islamic law.
This 'Theocratic State' rested upon the principle of Theocracy'.
The word
"Theocracy has been derived from the Greek word "Theos', meaning
God'.
Theocracy'
means a system of administration where either the God directly or as his representatives, the sacerdotal class is indirectly
involved in the affairs of administration. In course of time, the muslim theologicians had accepted
this concept. To give it a legal basis, they had mixed up the ideology with political
institutions.
In the
Islamic concept, the state does not have any independent existence of its own.
It is entirely subordinate to principles of Islam. Further
the three important features of Islam which serve the basis for the state are:
· Holy
Quran or Sacred Scripture
· Caliph
or Khalifa or the leader or the Imam
·
Millat or Muslim brotherhood
As the
muslim empire of Delhi was based on theocracy, the Quranic rules and regulations were supreme in the administrative business
of Delhi Sultanate.
The Caliph
or Khalifa was the Head of the Islamic world better known as 'Amir-UI- Momin' or the 'Leader of the Faithful'. No muslim ruler
could accept the designation of sultan without prior recognition from the Caliph. Therefore,
after getting investiture of the Caliph, the sultans used to inscribe the name of the Caliph on the
coins and 'Khutba' also borc Caliph's name, The sultans of Delhi acknowledged the suzerainty of
the Caliph, though they were independent rulers for all practical purposes.
Another
important aspect of Theocratic state was its emphasis on Millat or Muslim Brotherhood. As the true representative of this Islamic
Brotherhood, the Sultans took great interest in converting. Dar-UI-Herb (Land of Inficdels)
to Dar-Ul-Islam (Land of Faithful).
The non-Muslims or Zimmies had to pay jaziya Tax-a religious
tax for their own safety and security of their property, The higher posts of the
administration were reserved for the Muslims.
Besides, in
a Theocratic Sultanà State the other two important organs were Ulemas and
Shariat (Islamic Law).
The affairs
of the sultanate were conducted as per rulers laid down by the 'Shar or Islamic law, It was the duty of the head of the state to
put the law into practice. According to
Islamic belief, Shariat is the direct version of 'Allah'
which he had imparted to the founder of The religion, Prophet Mohammad, Thus, Shariat carries the
stamp of sacredness and sanctity, Therefore, it is hÃghly obligatory on the part of the
head of the state to act as per Shariat.
The Ulemas
or Islamic clergy constituted another pertinent aspect of Delhi Sultanate, These orthodox, conservative Ulemas exerted a lot of
influence by assimilating religion with politics. Their growing power and influence were a matter
of awe and fear for many weal
sultans. The Ulemas were instrumental in establishing the
ideals of an Islamic state.
Thus, we find the influence of Quran, Shariat, Ulemas,
Millat and other Islamic ideals in the functioning of theocratic state under Delhi Sultanate.
THEORY AND GOVERNANCE
The governance of Delhi Sultanate consisted of both
Indian and foreign elements. In the provincial administration, the Sultans used to include
some aspects of the Caliph's
administrative policy. At the same time, they attached
equal importance to their oWn principles and ideologies. Again, these Sultans were also aware of
the prevailing administrative system in India. Thus, the administration of Delhi Sultanate
consisted of various several sources which was branded as ‘Turko-Persian'
system in an Indian setting'. A closer look at the bits and pieces of this system is given
below.
GOVERNANCE
Sultan
the centre of all power and responsibility, As the
sovereign
authority of the state, he was the supreme commander,
fountain head of justice
and the law-maker of the land. Prominent Sultans like
Balban and Allauddin had adorned themselves with the title 'Zil-i-llahi'
meaning Viceregent of God on earth. This shows the
extent of ultimate power enjoyed by the sultans,The
Muslim jurists have recorded the duties of the sultan in Fatwa-i-Jahandari in
the following manner :
·
To respect the religious sentiment as
propounded by ljma.
·
To settle the disputes among the subjects,
·
To protect the muslim-dominated areas and the
highways and roads for pedestrians,
·
To make Islamic frontiers safe from possible
aggression;
·
To enforce criminal code for internal peace,
·
To collect revenue and taxes
·
To appoint officials to assist the sultan in
legal and administrative affairs.
It is
therefore, evident that the jurists were not indifferent to the causes of
non-Muslims though were more concerned for welfare administration.It is
remarked in this context:
"The
Sultan controls affairs, maintains rights and enforces the criminal code: he is
the Pole star around which revolve the affairs of the world
and the faith: he is the Protector in his realm, his shadow extends its canopy over his servants,
for he forbids the forbidden, helps the
oppressed, uproots the oppressor and gives security to
the timid."
In
fact, Sultanate administration was a highly centralised administration where
all the executive powers were in the hands of the Sultan. But due
to the interference of the ulemas, the political activities of the state were hampered.
Further, owing to the absence of laws related
to succession issue, internal quarrel and revolt were quite common. Of course, later on the system
ot hereditary succession came into force.
Moreover,
during the rule of certain weak sultans the powerful nobility used to influence the central administration considerably.
In general, the sultans were more busy in their military
campaigns for most of the time.So long as the elites did not interfere in the
administrative affairs they were dear to the king.The army, ulemas and the nobility acted as factors
checking the powers of the sultan.
Nobility
Besides
the ulemas, the other group which exerted a lot of influence in the
central administration was the Nobility. The sultan never did
venture to set aside their importance.
These nobles by virtue of their social dignity, prestige
and leadership had a greater say in The administration and could control the royal powers of
the weak sultans. Being appointed as Provincial Governor and in other higher posts they
enjoyed unlimited authourity during the Sultanate period.
Ministries
There
is an popular Arabic saying which runs as following:
"Like
a courageous-fellow seeking the assistance of soldiers, the wise ruler
accordingly needs the suggestion of the ministers.' The
saying proved to be correct in the Sultanate administrative set-up. The Sultans
of Delhi had appointed a number of ministers to help them in
the stupendous task of administration. Their number, power and activities were
either restricted or extended according to the sweet will of the sultan. Towards the
close of 13th century we get a clear picture regarding the functioning of different
ministries.
Naib (Naib-i-Mamlikta)
This post
was created by Sultan Baharum Shah after the departure of Sultana Razia.The Naib or the deputy administrative head was usually
appointed during the reign of minor or weak sultans. He was known as Naib or Naib -i-Mamlikta.
Being the controller of maximum powers, he used to control the administrative system. But
otherwise, as during the reign or Alauddin Khilji, he had far less power.
Wazir
The head
of the civil administration or Prime Minister was called as Wazir who was the connecting link between sultan and the subjects. In the
administrative hierarchy, his position was second after the sultan. His main duties included
collection of revenue, control of income and expenditure, allocation of military expenses, providing
governmental aid and assistance to pundits and scholars and other welfare measures for the
orphans and destitutes.
The
Wazir's Department was known as Diwan-i-Wizarat. General assistant or Naib Wazir was in charge.of the departmental details. The
other two prominent officers of the department were-
·
Mushrif -i-Mumalik or Accountant General
·
Mustauf-i- Mumalik or Auditor General
The first one was in charge
of maintaining the accounts of the provincial and other departmental expenditures
while the second one checked and audited the entire amount. They
were assisted by a number of
sub-ordinate officials and clerks.
Ariz-i-Mumalik
Ariz-i-Mumalik was the next important officer after wazir
in the administrative order. Ha was the minister of Military Department and his office
was Diwan-i-Ariz. The appointment ihe soldiers, their training and war strategy -
everything was decided by Ariz-i-Mumalik. Of
ourse, theoretically Sultan was the head of the military organization. But the payment of the coldiers, accounts of the booty collected from war,
discipline in the army, maintenance of food and hygenic standard of the animals used in war etc. were
looked after by him. At times, with prior permission from the sultan he could lead the war in
the front.
Diwan-I-Insha
The
minister who maintained all records pertaining to sultan as well as state correspondences was known as Diwan-i-Insha. In this task
he was assisted by a number of
Dabirs or efficient correspondents who were appointed for
their beautiful hand - writing and style of presentation. The sultan maintained his official
correspondences with provincial
governors, sub-ordinate rulers and other officials
through Diwan- i- Insha. This department carried great official importance as it was entrusted
with secret royal documents and declarations of the sultan.
Diwan-I-Risalat
The Minister for External Affairs was known as Diwan-
i-Risalat. It was his duty to maintain diplomatic ties with foreign countries and to
look after the ambassadors and diplomats. Especially he took a leading role in
establishing diplomatic contact by sending ambassadors to West Asian countries.
Sadr-Us-Sadur
The religious affairs of the state was managed by
Sadr-us-Sadur. His prime duty was propagation of Islam and to safeguard the interest of the
Muslims. He used to collect a type of Ecclesiastical Tax known as Zakat from which he had to
spend money towards masjids, Jakirs, maqtabs (educational institutions) to maintain a
tradition of benevolence.
Qazi-ul-Qazat
The Head
of Judiciary was-Qazi-ul-Qazat who had to assess the works of Qazis Qudges). At times, he also performed the religious duties
of Sadr-us-Sadur.
Barid-i-Mumalik
Barid-i-Mumalik
was the head of Information and Intelligence Department. Barid or dtelligence officers were appointed by him to furnish
information to the central govermment regarding the functionings of various administrative
units, information of internal revolts or
external disturbances.
Vakil-i-Dar
Vakil-i-Dar
was in charge of royal household. He looked after the royal stable, retinue of servants and personal attendants of the king. Any
royal order or any personal work of the members of royal family was carried out by him.
Therefore, very carefully he had to manage all the greater details of the palace. Besides
these ministers, We find other imperial officers in Delhi Sultanate. They were
as
follows.
·
Diwan-i-Amir-Kohi in charge of Agriculture
Department.
·
Amir-i-Hajib looked after entertainment of
guests.
·
Amir-i-Shikar-i-Sahi in charge of royal
hunting.
·
Amir-i-Majlis arranged the meeting of royal
assembly.
·
Amir-i-Akhur in charge of Cavalry.
·
Shahnah-i-Pilan in charge of Elephantry.
Provincial Administration
The whole
of the empire was divided into a number of Iqtas or provinces for administrative convenience. There were no fixed number of
provinces. Rather during the rule
of various sultans it varied to suit their style and
needs.
The head of
the provinces were known as Naib, Wali, Muqti or Amir and the sultan appointed an efficient person of his choice for this
responsible post. In this context Hassan
Nizami.remarks:
'A famous
and exalted servant was chosen to be Governor (Head of the Province) so that he might look after the soldiers, servants warriors
and clerks xxx he should take pains to fulfil the expectation of the people, he should exercise
the greatest circumspection in military,
revenue matters and he should maintain traditions of
benevolence and charity as to leave a name for etemity.’
During
the reign of Allauddin Khilji we come across two types of Iqtas.
· The
first type of Iqtas were the original parts of the Sultanate from the
beginning.
· The
second type of Iqtas were added to the empire after conquest.
A
replica of central ministers referred earlier was also found in provincial set
up. Further,
these ministers had to submit the performances of their
departments to the Central
Government,But in
general, the efficiency of the Provincial Administration rested upon the
personality he sultan, In case of strong sultans this system work
very successfully while under weak aultans, the Provincial Governors used to exercise their
independence defying the central
authority.
Local Administration
In the
initial phase of Sultanate period Iqta was the lowest unit of administration.
Later
on. Jatas were divided into Shiqs under the authority of
a Shiqdar.
The shiqs
were further divided into a number of parganas with officers like Amil, Kanungo, Chaudhury and Karkuns for administrative
purpose. Amils used to collect taxes while Kanungo and Chaudhury dealt with agricultural
matters and Karkuns were the clerks.
Pargana occupied an important place in sultanate
administration because it was here the
government could come in direct contact with the farmers.
Village
was the lowest unit of administration where Panchayat looked after education, cleanliness and judicial matters. The hereditary village
officials like Patwari, Khut, Chaukidar and Muggadams assisted the central authority in revenue
collection, control of crimes etc.
Usually the sultan did not interfere in village
administration.
Finance and Revenue
The financial policy of the sultanate was based on the
theory of taxation propounded by the Hanafi School of Thought among the muslim Jurists. It
prescribed the levy of five kinds of taxes - Ushr, Kharaj, Kham, Jaziya and Zakat.
Ushr
was a kind of land revenue that was collected from Muslims only, For natural Irrigation
of the land, the owner had to pay one tenth while for man-made irrigational resources
he had to pay one fifth of the total produce. Kharaj
was the land revenue collected from the non-muslimns that varied from half to one
third the produce. Kham
constituted the booty acquired from war where one fifth of the spoil was meant for
royal treasury and four fifths were distributed among the soldiers. Jaziya
was the Religious tax collected from the non-Muslims which were divided into three
grades on the basis of their economic standing. The richest had to pay 48
dirhams
(rupee),
the second grade 24 dirhams and the third 12 dirhams annually.
Zakat
was Religious Tax paid by the Muslims for the benefit and welfare of the religionists
at the rate of two and a half per cent of the actual income.
In
addition, other forms of taxes were Travel Tax, Pleasure Tax, House Tax, Impet Export Tax etc. which were spent towards the salary of
the officials, personal expenses of sultan, suppression of revolt and for the army.
Land Revenue
Land
revenue constituted the major source of income of the state for which lands
were
divided into four categories.
Ø Khalsa
land under direct control of the Central Government.
Ø Iqta
land under Provincial Governors.
Ø Lands
of the Hindu feudatory chiefs.
Ø Inam
or Wagf land given to muslim scholars and sages.
The revenue
from Khalsa lands were collected by Amils. At the same time, hereditary
officials like Chaudhury, Muqaddam, Khut etc, also
collected taxes.
During the
time of Muhammad Tughlaq, a special class of officers called Diwani-l
Amir- Kohi was created to introduce developments in
agriculture.
Military Organisation
In the
medieval period the power of sultan owed its origin to military activities. For
the strength and stability of the empire, suppression of
internal revolts and external enemies, he had to depend primarily on the strength of his army which
was of three categories.
Ø Soldiers
directly recruited by the Sultan.
Ø Troops
under Provincial Goyernors and Nobility.
Ø Soldiers
recruited immediately during war.
In the
history of Delhi Sultanate, Alauddin Khilji was the first ruler to introduce
Standing
Army. The Sultanate army was a heterogenous one
consisting of Mongols, Afghans, Persians,
Indian Muslims and Hindus where the highest commander was
Sultan himself The Army had
three wings: bodh
· Cavalry,
Infantry and Elephantry The Cavalry
was the backbone of army which took a leading role in protecting
Sultanate from recurrent Mongol invasions, Cavalry had
three sub-wings.
·
Murattab in charge of two horses.
·
Sawar in charge of one horse.
·
Do- Aspa means the soldier though not a
member of cavalry wing yet made use of the horse. Standard horses were usually brought
from Arab, Turkistan and Russia and the horses were branded with Huda or mark system.
The
soldiers of the Infantry were called as Payaks. Infantry mainly comprised of
Indian Muslims, Hindus and slaves who fought with swords,
spears, bows and arrows.
Elephantry
wing of the army was no less an important one. It was used for transportation of war materials and food to the battle-
field. The head of Elephantry was Shahnah-i-Pilan who used to give training to the
elephants and looked after transportation.
Out of
the three wings of the army, cavalry was of utmost importance during war. In addition, proper war planning and use of different war
equipments, were the other
features of the Sultanate army. Except traditional
weapons, hand grenades, rocket, iron ball, catapult, big stones, combustible materials for setting
fire and even poisonous snakes were used for military expeditions.
Judiciary
Judiciary
in sultanate period was known as Diwan-i-Qwaja. Sultan was the Fountain of Justice and his adalat sat twice a week. In the
ecclesiastical affairs, the Sultan was assisted by Sadr-Ur-Sadur and Qazi -Ul- Qazat helped in other
judicial matters. Judiciary in provincial level was managed by Qazi and
Sadar while Panchayat looked
after the villages. It was the duty of the local
administrators to help the Qazi or his representatives for proper administration of justice for
the benevolence of common people. The cases were decided as per Shariat or Islamic Law.
System of punishment was very harsh marked by amputation of limbs, confiscation of
property or death penalty.
Police Department
Police
Department under the Kotwals was organized to maintain law and order in big cities. They worked as night guards to look after the
security of the people. That is why each Kotwal was accompanied by a small group to check
incidents of crime.
A special
class of officers called Mahtasib were there to supervise the use of weights and measures and for market control. Intoxicating liquor,
ganja etc. were prohibited. As there were no regular jails, forts were used a prisons for
culprits.
Postal Service
Postal Service was well maintained within the sultanate
for regular contact with variou parts of the empire. Ibn Batuta refers to two types of
Dak or Poslal scrvice in this context.
·
Ulak or Postal service through horses.
·
Dawa or Postal service through runners.
An overall
analysis of sultanate administration reveals that it rested more on military dictatorship. Being a Theocratic State, religious
parochialism was another constituent element
of the administrtion. Due to lack of proper
organizational skill, Revenue, Judiciary or Police Departments could not get popular support. Further
internal disputes, power of the ulemas, conspiracy of the nobles were also responsible for
political instability and weak administration. A general national character or patriotism was therefore
very much absent for the lack of secular outlook.
SOCIAL STRUCTURE
The first muslim invasion of India took place in the
first part of 8th century. But muslim rule started in India in 1206 AD, During the long 300
years rule of Turk - Afghan sultans
remarkable changes were marked in the medieval Indian
society and culture.
Of course
before the advent of the Muslims in this sub-continent, foreign invaders like Sakas, Hunas, Kushans and others had appeared on the soil
no doubt. But they had got
themselves lost in the veritable ocean of the superior
Indian society and culture. It was during Turk Afghan supremacy in India that the Muslims
established their own social rites and
customs. Again the long co-existence of hindus and Muslims
had brought a synthesis of both the cultures which was manifested in the social strata of
the sultanate period. Some important features of the process have bcen cited below.
Division in the Society
Long before
the Muslims, the division in hindu society was based upon caste system like brahmins, kshatriya, vaisyas and sudras. Also there were
untouchables, and socialoutcastes. The foreigners were regarded as Mlechchas or
unholy by the upper - caste hindus.
Musim
Society was also not above such division. There were several classes based on
social dignity and economic standard.
·
Ahal-i-Daulat included the royals, nobles and
aristocrats.
·
Ahal-1-Sadat consisted of ulemus, qazis,
pundits and scholars
·
Ahal-i-Murad was made of ministers,
musicians, officials etc.
·
Awam-o-Khaluk comprised of the labourers,
artisans, peasants etc.
The first group of aristocrats and nobles were the
successors of external Muslims. With
their rich pedigree and heritage they were adorned with
prestigious titles like Khan, Malik,
Amir etc. Being landlords and Jagirdars they had a
prominent role in the sultanate
administration.
Ulemas and
qazis of Ahal-i-Sadat group were also quite influential. Especially the
ulemas by virtue of their religious superiority had a
leading role in political matters. The qazis,
like the ulemas also enjoyed a lot of privileges of their
significant role in judiciary.
The middle
class or Ahal-i-Murad were relatively less privileged with a minimum
standard of existence.
The lowest
class in the society was unprivileged one who led a hand to mouth existence.
Of course, in comparison to their hindu counterparts they
were a little better. But in general,
their condition was far from satisfactory.
During
this period, we come across a new class in the social structure who were known
as Indian Muslims. Initially they were small in number.
Later on, many Imdians, who embraced
Islam, increased the number of this class. But they were
not at par with the others in power
and prestige. Neither being accepted by the Muslims nor
by the hindus they were bound to
lead an inferior standard of life.
The slave
community was a part and parcel of sultanate society. They were
mdispensable for all well-to-do muslim families. As the
most oppressed class, the slaves were
deprived of all social facilities. Of course, there were
some fortunate slaves who could please
their masters by their faithfulness and efficiency. The
best examples are Sultan Qutbu-Din and
ututmish who were earlier slaves but were raised to the
post of sultans.
Moral Condition
Alter defeating any ruler, much time was spent in the
midst of wine, women and gambling.
rurther, as the rulers were not vigilant for the
maintenance of moral values, comuption, easy
te and vices became rampant. Of course, some sultans like
Alauddin Khilji or Muhammad
Tughlag had taken certain stern steps for moral uplift,
but in general moral standard had come
On the other hand, due to predominance of
religious habits among the hindus
predened to remain confined to superstitions, blind
beliefs etc. The accounts of Marco
Albenni show that the hindus had much faith in Astrology,
black magic and sorcery.
Social Customs
The
uslims came from outside. But after becoming permanent residents of this country,
they were influenced by hindu social rites and customs.
The elephant and umbrella were
accepted as royal insignia in administrative circles
Hindu style of spiccy dishes, differeat types
of sweets and pickles with food and chewing betel after
food became familiar with the
muslim. Further, use turbans like Raiputs, wearing silk
and fine clothes, believing in Astrology
etc. gradually became a part of Islamic society.
The hindus were usually
vegetarians except the sudras and kshatriyas. Rice, chappati,
dal, milk and milk products and vegetables were the usual
foods. Omaments were used bot
by male and female folk. Dhoti and saree were the normal
dress while wealthier people used
a long type jacket called Angika,
City life
was much comfortable. Both the communities were living happily in good
houses. But there was no change in village life They
lived in the same mud and thatched huts
with limitied resourses.
Different
types of games, hunfing, wrestling, cock or bull fighting, horse pola, etc were
the means of entertainment in leisure hours by the people
of the both communities. In addition,
Holy, Diwali, Dussehra
were observed by the hindus while for the Muslims Eid, Muharran
Sabe-i-Barat
were sources of great joy and merry- making.
Sultanate
period was the first phase of muslim rule in India. So naturally contemporary
society and economy were ifluenced by muslim domination. While
the hindus tried to maintain
their cultural balance, the Muslims were equally
conscious of their cultural identity. In course of
time, both of them came close to evolve an alI Indian
style of living.
POSITION OF WOMEN
A lot of
deterioration was marked in the social standing and dignity of women in the
sultanate period. In general, both the hindu and muslim
women were restricted within the four
walls of the bouse being deprived of their independent
existence.
The
hindu society was marked by child marriage, purdah system and devdasi customs
Widow remamage was forbidden among the upper caste
hindus. Besides rich and aristocb
ladies, others had no scope for education. Polygamy had
also deteriorated their condition
considerably.
The
condition of the muslim women was in no way better. They were the suppressed
group. Clad in burkhas, with no education, they
led miserable lives. Of course, comparatively
the rich muslim women were bit better with little
education and their family status.
In
fine, the nature of state, governance and social structure of the sultanate
period had
characteristics of their own in the annals of medieval
Indian History.
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