ANCIENT ROME

 

                         ANCIENT ROME

 

Ancient Rome earned its fame as a glowing civilisation. Itlay is situated on the confluence of three islands inside the Mediterranean Sea, a portion of which was known as Rome. It became the capital of Italy later on. As per legend, Remulus and Remus the two brothers had laid the foundation of Rome. The name of that city became famous as Rome after the name Remulus. With the advancement of time, the social life of Rome, a 'city of seven hills' got a concrete shape. The city of Rome became a centre of gross political and cultural activities.

 

SOCIETY IN ANCIENT ROME

The formation of ancient Roman society is romantic, so also its evolution. It consisted of several tribes and classes. In due course of time, the Roman Society was divided into two classes Patrician and Plebian. The class struggle between the two determined the course of Roman society.

 

The Early State of Roman Society :

'Rome was not built in a Day'. The Roman society took years to grow. It consisted of Aguians, Volscian Etruscans, Samnites, Lucanians, Umbrians, Brutians and Italians Greeks. In 753 B.C. when Remulus and Remus established Rome, 'The City of Seven Hills', then began th process of social formation. As per the the sayings of the people, after building Rome, Remulus invited rich, poor, slave, robber and other varieties of people to live in that city. He brought the Sabian ladies by force and accomplished their marriage with the natives of Rome. Thus, the Romans were born from the combination of Sabians and Latinians. As the first king of Rome, Remulus divided his subjects into two classes-the Patrician and Plebian. After his seven kings ruled over Rome from 717 B.C. to 510 B.C. Among those kings, the last king Tarquinies Superbus framed cruel laws for his subjects who banished that king from Rome. This was known as 'Expulsion of the Tarquins' or 'Regifuagium' which took place in 510 B.C. Right from that time began the historic age in Rome.

 Class Division in Roman Society :

After the end of monarchy began the republican experiment the Rome. This social division furthered the process of democracy in Rome. The Roman society was classified as such :

 Patrician :

The nobles of the Roman society were known as Patricians. They were aristocrats and more landed property. The cultivation of these lands yielded more crops thereby making the Patricians rich. They constituted a small yet influential section of the Roman Society. They were considered socially superior to the common mass. They were regarded as a vital apart of the government. They could only be member of the Senate. The occupied the lucrative posts in the government. They only married among their own community. They did not keep matrimonial relation with the common people. The symbols of aristrocracy were perfectly reflected in them. The Patricians in fact occupied high position in the society.

Plebian :

The common people of Rome were known as Plebs or Plebians. They were deprived of political liberty. They were landless and poor. They worked in the field of Patricians and produced bumper crops. The Patricians became the owner of that crops and the Plebians had to lead a life of misery. They became poor and poorer in the society. They were grossly exploited by the Patricians. The Plebians became the must neglected and exploited class in the society. The social disparity between the Patricians and Plebinas led to the 'Class Struggle' in the Roman society.

 

The Class Struggle in Roman Society :

With the gradual march of time, the Plebians were exploited and oppressed by the Patricians. So, they decided to leave Rome and to take shelter in other parts of Italy. The Patricians took steps to disuade them from their decision. This clean struggle between the two passed through three phases.

 

The First Phase (510 B.C.-449 B.C.) :

The tyranny of the Patricians grew day by day. After the end of the Latin War they. instead of helping the Plebians, made their life miserable with the burden of loan. When they demanded more interest from the Plebians, the social life of the later dwindled away. They led a miserable life. They began their struggle against the Patricians to get their legitimacy. They left Rome and settled three miles away from the city in the 'Sacred Mountain'. They dreamt of building a new city there. Life of the Patricians came to a stand still after the departure of the Plebians from Rome. They promised to accept the demands of the Plebians and Persuaded them to return Home.

This was a golden opportunity for the Plebians. They were freed from the bondage of loan. The Plebians who worked as slaves were freed. They were given opportunity to assert their claim. They were also empowered to elect the Magistrate or Tribune. They were also given power to apply 'Veto' against the wrong decision of the Tribune. Thus, in the first phase of the class struggle, the Plebians got some of their demands fulfilled.

 

The Second Phase (449 B.C.-366 B.C.) :

Island The Patricians could not free themselves fully from the clutches of the Plebians although some of their demands had been fulfilled. So, they began their struggle against the Patricians to get equal social and political rights. By this time, the Patricians totally declined to accept the claims for the Plebians. Then again the Plebians left Rome and went up to the Sacred Mountain. The Patricians went there and persuaded the Plebians to return on the promise for further concession. In 445 B.C. the famous “canuleian Law” was passed which legalized marriage between Patricians and Plebians. It paved the way for social equality in Roman society.

Third Phase (366 BC-267 BC).

In this phase, the patricians surrendered the remaining privileges to the Plebians. The two orders now felt themselves as one people. Of course, this achievement of the man was not smooth. After the cloud of Gaul's attack on Rome disapeared, the Patricians began their tyranny over the Plebians. The moment they went to the Patricians for loan, the letter demanded heavy interest. This brought greater dissatisfaction among e Plebians who appointed a Tribune or Magistrate among themselves named Camillus. There after a Plebian named Cextius was appointed as Consul. This made the Plebians powerful. Already Tribunes were appointed to safeguard the interest of the plebians from the tyranny for the Patricians. Then laws were codified in 12 bronze tablets which were famous as 'Laws of Twelve Tablets'. Those twelve tablets were regarded as the "Magna Carta' of the Plebians. Now both Patricians and Plebians stood on equal footing in Roman society.

Result of the Class Struggle :

The results of the class struggle in Rome were far reaching. These results influenced the course of Roman history in later times.

At first, the struggle between the Patrician and Plebian ended in the fusion of the two classes in Roman society. This was an auspicious sign for the future of Rome.

Secondly, the unity between the two classes brought stability in the Roman society. This stability contributed a lot for the prosperity of Rome.

Thirdly, the unity among the Patricians and Plebians led the expansion of Roman empire in future. Being united, they became victorious in the battle fields of Italy, Gaul and Sammite. Ruthelessly, they defeated the nomadics of Gaul and Italian Greeks. These victories paved the way for the growth of Roman Empire.

At last, the class struggle ended with giving more confidence to the Plebians. They began to enjoy power. The senate became more powerful due to the presence of the Plebians. Those were the results of the class struggle in Rome.

 

Social Life and Economy :

The Roman society was largely an agricultural society. In due course of time, they paid attention towards trade and commerce. As Rome was situated only twelve miles away from the confluence of Tiber river, trade and commerce grew rapidly. Coming in contact with Greeks, the Romans knew the use of weights, measures and coins. They also knew about the building of ships. By establishing trade and commercial relation with outside world, they became prosperous. This economic prosperity galvanised the cultural activities of the Romans.

 Roman Society and Religion :

Religion formed an integral part of the Roman society. There was not a special priestly class in the Roman society. From among the citizens of Rome, a few were choosen to perform the works of the priests. A few persons appointed in the field of administration in Rome performed this work. They were known as Pontif. The chief among them was known as Pontifex Maximus. In one course of time, the Roman kings used that title Even today, Pope, the head of Christianity bears this title. The Romans worshipped various powers of nature. The Chief god of the Romans was 'Jupitert.

jupiter

They first worshipped the trio-'Mars-Jupiter-Qurinus'. Later on, they worshipped the triad-'Mars-Juno-Minarva'. 'Mars' was the god of war and 'Juno' was the wife of Jupiter. The chief divinites of the household were 'Janus', the spirit of the door way. 'Vesta' was the spirit of the fire on hearth, 'Penates' were the guardian spirits of the store chamber, 'Genius' was the guardian spirit of the life of the family as a whole, 'Lar Familiaris', the spirit of the cultivated land, and 'Lares', the protecting spirit of the house. Thus, the Romans worshipped many gods and goddesses.

 

Roman Society and Education :

The Romans were careful for increasing the standard of their education. They established primary schools. In due course of time, Latin was used as the medium of education. The students were taught to lead an ideal life. The students were taught philosophy, oratory and human rights in the school. In case of need, the teachers were brought from outside countries and employed in schools for bringing improvement in the career of the students. This shows the love of Romans for education.

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Thus, the history of the ancient Roman society was heart touching. The struggle between the Patricians and Plebians had determined the course of the Roman society. Unity was achieved when struggle between the two classes came to an end. Their combined effort led to the expansion of the Roman empire. The Latin language brought unity among the Romans. Religion, Economy and Education were other aspects of the Roman society which enhanced its glory.

 

ADMINISTRATION IN ANCIENT ROME

Monarchical form of government, established by Remulus and Remus could not prevail in Rome for a long time. The Romans dethorned the Etruscan ruler Tarquinius Superbus and laid down the foundation of a Republican government. The struggle between Patricians and Plebians determined the course of Roman history. The end of the struggle between these two classes brought glory to Rome. In different wars like Italian War, Gaul War, Latin War and Samnite Wars, Rome became victorious. The Roman Republic grew from strength to strength.

 

Consul:

The administration of Rome was guided by a constitution. As per the provision of constitution, the military administration and the highest executive administration vested with two Consuls. The Romans thought that if powers will be concentrated one hand, the Consul will be a dictator. That is why they appointed two consuls. Both them were cautious about their power. If by chance they differed from each other on particular issue, the Senate interfered in that matter. The two Consuls were appointed only for one year. It was predicted that they might be dictator, if they remain in power for more than a year. That is why these two Consuls were elected only for a year. In this way, the people of Rome brought the highest authority of the country under their control. During emergency, one of the Consuls acted as Magistrate Populi or Dictator for six months. He maintained law and order by awarding condime punishment. That magistrate Populi returned to his own position of Consul when normalcy was restored.

 

Praetor :

The general administration of Rome was not only vested with Consuls but also with Praetor. He was considered as one of the key persons of the administration of Rome. He played a vital role in the smooth discharge of administration in Rome. He helped the Consul during war as his trusted lieutenant. He looked after warfare, supply of war materials and food to soldiers, organization of army and obeyed the order of Consul in the war. He gave his expert opinion to the Consul at the time of need. The Consul in association with the Praetor took important decision regarding war and peace. All these activities made Praetor him popular. He was elected only for one year.

 Censor :

The Censor paid attention towards the economy of Roman Republic. After the end of every five years, they accomplished the task of Census in Rome. They also prepared the list of property of the citizens of Rome and levied tax on the people. They worked with a mission to collect revenue for the treasury of Rome. Due to the economic policy of the Roman Republic became strong. The Censurers were elected for five years.

 Questor :

Another integral part of the Roman Republic was Questor. They were appointed as treasurers. They also paid attention for the collection of tax and expenditure of money. They also verified the papers relating to property. They played an important role to implement criminal laws in the field of administration. The Questors were also elected only for a year.

 

Aedil :

The Aedil was responsible for the maintenance of law and order in the society. He looked after the works of the police and helped in checking crimes inside the society He also looked after the municipal administration. He tried his best to bring administration very close to the people so that the public could feel its direct result. He was also elected for a year.

 Senate :

In the domain of administration in Rome, Senate was the most important organ. It consisted of 300 members. The experienced and aged people were its members. All of them were its life members. Although the Consul was the chief of the administration, he was regulated by the Senate. The main work of the Senate was to advise the Consul, Besides this, it was regulating the foreign policy, income and expenditure, recruitment of army, provincial administration, defence of the country etc. The honesty, sincerety. abiltiy and sense of dedication of the senate members contributed a lot for the growth of the Roman Republic. Each and everly law became legitimate after receiving the approval of the Senate. So, the Roman people respected the Senate. As a Legislative Assembly, the Senate regulated the administration of Rome.

 

Tribune :

Generally the Senators were nobles. It was suspected that these people might do harm to common people. Thus, to protect the Plebians from the tyranny of Patricians, the Tribune was formed. It was again thought out that if one man is appointed in this post, he might not be impartial. That is why two persons were appointed as Tribunes. They were always active to protect the common people from the wrath of Magistrate or Questor and impart justice. They contributed a lot for the welfare of the people or Plebians protecting them always from the clutches of the nobles or Patricians.

 

Comitia Tributa :

The Plebians also played vital role in the administration of Rome. A National Assembly named 'Comitia Tributa' was formed in Rome by the Plebians. In the first stage, the laws framed by this Assembly were holding good over the Plebians. Later on, the laws framed by this Comitia Tributa were also applicable for the Patricians. One of the important works of this Comitia Tributa was to appoint the Tribunes. It always looked after the well being of the common people. That is why, its role in the administration of Rome was quite significant.

Comitia Centuriata :

Another National Assembly in Rome was 'Comitia Centuriata'. Many Roman nobles were its members. This acted more or less as a judiciary. It acted as a court of appeal. It heard the charges brought against the Counsils. If they are found guilty, they were awarded punishment by this Assembly. That is why, Comitia Centuriata played a vital role in case of the administration of the Roman Republic.

In fact, the administration of ancient Rome was unique. It was well regulated and balanced. No Consul could venture to be a dictactor. If anybody tried to misutilise the power, then Comitia Centuriata punished him. The Tribune saved the Plebians from the tyranny of Patricians. The co-operation between the Patricians and Plebians ushered a new age in Rome. For their administration, the ancient Romans are famous in history.

 

ACHIEVEMENT OF JULIUS CAESAR

The name of Julius Caesar is struck in golden letters as a world conqueror. He appeared as a sun in the horizon of Rome and became famous in the annals of world history due to his crowning personality. From politics to history he left his mark in every field. Till death, he became the hero of many romantic episodes. His devotion to work crowned him with success in each and every step.

Early Career :

In 100 B.C. Julius Caesar was born in a Patrician family of Julii of Rome who claimed his descent from Venus. He was the proud son of father Gaius Caesar and mother Aurelia. When Gaius was a Praetor, he appointed Marcus Antonius Ghipho, a man of Gaul as the teacher for Julius. Ghipho was a person of remarkable memory having proficiency in Greek and Latin language who influenced the thought and outlook of Julius. When Julius was

Julius Caesar learning, his father breathed his last.

In the meanwhile, Julius married Cornelia, the daughter of Sinna, a disciple of the revolutionary hero, Marius. As a young man, he had established his mark by refusing to divorce his wife at the behest of Sulla, the famous military dictator of Rome. With great difficulties. Julius could escape the clutches of Sulla by fleeing from Rome to Italy. After Sulla's death in 78 B.C., he returned to Rome and rose to political prominence. After that Aurelia took Caesar to the island of Rhodes and left him under the guidance of Apolonius Molon, a Greek teacher who taught oratory to Julius. From him Ceaser - also learnt ability to do hard work, sincerity, patience and political acumen.Returning back to Rome Julius took part in poltiics. He was elected as Quester in 69 B.C. After that, he never looked back. He was appointed in different posts like Tribune, Aiedil, Praetor etc. and satisfied the people of Rome in various ways. In 59 B.C. Caesar was appointed as Consul. IOn 59 B.C. he formed the Triumvirate with Pompey and Crassus. He now married Julia, the daughter of Pompey. From great warrier and Crassus. an unscrulpulsous merchant. The Triumvirate wanted to control the administration of Rome, Rome was divided into three parts. Julius Caesar ruled over the western part of Rome whereas Crassus over the eastern part and pompey over the Southern part. Of course. Caesar desired to accumulate all powers in his own hand. The death Julia led Caesar to marry Calpurnia whose father became a Consul.

 

Expeditions of Julius Caesar :

Calpurnia

The marriage of Julius Caesar with Calpurnia gave him a political boost. His desire to be a great conqueror was fulfilled when he led several expeditions at different parts of the globe.

 

Gaul Expedition :

As per the decision of the Triumvirate, Pompey remained in Rome. Crassus started his journey to conquer Parthia. Julius Caesar, with an army of 40,000 Roman soldiers, led an expedition to Gaul. By that time Gaul consisted of the present France, Neatherland, Switzerland, Germany and a portion of British Isles. With bravery Ceasar defeated the people of Gaul in different phases. From the Commentaries, written by Julius Caesar, information is gathered regarding his Gaul expedition. Julius Caesar stayed for long nine year there to conquer Gaul. At last he succeeded in conquering Gaul and making it a part of the Roman empaire. By this conquest, the Roman empire extended up to river Rhine in the North and Atlantic Ocean in the West. The soldiers who accompanied Caesar in the Gaul expedition sang his glory and bravery. Caesar brought development in agriculture there in Gaul and for that work, he was liked by the native people.

 

Invasion of Germany :

After the conquest of Gaul, Caesar became jubilant. The bandits of Germany had obstructed the way of Caesar during his Gaul expedition. In order to teach them a lesson, Caesar marched towards Germany with his Roman army. A violent war took place between the army of Germany and Rome. At last, the German soldiers were defeated. Caesar returned from Germany. After that, the people of Germany became rebellious. Caesar marched towards Germany with fury and inflicted a crushing defeat upon them. He drove them away completely to the other side of river Rhine.

 

Invasion of England :

In 54 B.C. Caesar invaded England. It was only because Prince Cassivellaunus of England harassed the Romans who lived there in Gaul. So Caesare crossed the British Channel by ships and landed on the river bank of Thames. He defeated the army of England. The prestige of England was shattered. This victory of Caesar made him popular before his soldiers.

 

Civil War :

Crassus died in 53 B.C. while fighting against the parthians. After the death of Julia, relation between Pompey Caesar was strained. Thus, the triumvirate came to an end. Caesar now wanted to return Rome. By the recommendation of the Senates, Pompey instructed Caesar to divide his army and one after another to Rome. He had to reach Rome later on. Caesar defied this order. With his grand army he crossed a mall river Rubicon in 49 B.C. This crossing of Rubicon is a great event in history because this made Caesar a dictator.

Pompey Pompey was determined to face Caesar. However, Caeser's arrival frightened Pompey who fled away in 48 B.C. Caesar defeated Pompey in the battle of Pharsalus. Pompey fled away from the battle field towards Egypt. He killed the Senators who were the followers of Pompey. He also pardoned some of his followers, among whom two were famous. They were Capsius and Brutus who later on murdered Julius Caesar. After the battle of Pharsalus, Caesar returned Rome. He was welcomed by people and made dictator for a period of ten years.

 

Campaign in Egypt :

After winning the confidence of the people, Caesar was in hot pursuit of Pompey desiring to meet him in person. With his arrival in Egypt, he was presented with the head of Pompey by a Greek. Caesar became cheerful and arrived in Alexandria in 48 B.C. He subdued a rebellious army in Egypt and substituted it by a Roman garrison. He put Cleopatra and his brother Ptolemy on the throne of Egypt. He spent nine months there with the Egyptian Queen Cleopatra with romance. The romance ended with the birth of a son to Cleopatra named Caesarian. For this activity, Caesar had been criticized in future.

 

 

 Campaign in Asia :

Caesar marched from Egypt towards Asia Minor. He defeated Pharnaces in 47 B.C. in the battle of Zela. Pharnaces fled away from the battle field. Caesar was delighted with joy and sent his message to one of his friends at Rome. That message was "Vini, Vidi, Vici". (I came, I saw, I conquered). The Romans danced with joy with the achievements of Julius Caesar. This enhanced the glory of Caesar in Rome.

 

Campaign in Africa :

Caesar came to know that the followers of Pompey had taken refuge in North Africa. Caesar reached there in 46 B.C. He crushed them in the battle field of Thapsus. 50.000 soldiers were killed which included their readers like Juba and Scipio. Cato, an old Senator killed himself before he fell in the hands of Caesar's army. Then Caesar returned Rome to celebrate his victory.

 

Campaign in Spain :

Julius came to know that another group of Pompey's supporters were hiding themselves in Spain. By that time, the supporters of Pompey had placed his son on the throne of Spain. Caesar defeated the enemy in the battle of Munda in 45 B.C. Even, he did not hesitate to kill the son of Pompey. This sanguinary battle brought and to the career of conquest what Caesar was pursuing for a long time.

 

Caesar as a Reformer :

Caesar returned Rome with Cleopatra in October, 45 B.C. and saw the prevailing disorder in Italy. The entire administrative set up was ruined. The people of Rome appointed Caesar as 'Dictator' for life. In a grand function, the crown of the Roman "King' was put upon his head by Mark Antony which he refused. After that Caesar wanted to bring political stability in Rome. He accepted the title of 'Imperator'. He treated the Senate as an advisory council and reduced it to a secondary position. Of course he raised the number of questor and Praetor up to 40 who became his supporters. He nominated the persons and that was known as Commendation. Thus, Caesar became a virtual dictator of Rome. He circulated gold coins at Carthage and Corinth and other centres in the different provinces. He prohibited high rates of interest and amended the law of bankruptcy. He took up massive constructive activities and solved the problem of unemployment by engaging the youths in the programme. He also built many dykes to control the flood in river Tiber. He passed a famous law known as Lex Julia Muncipalis to regulate and organize the town community in Italy and the provinces. By all these reforms, he earned a great name.

 

 Julian Calendar :

Julius Caesar was a great mathematician. He opined that there was no relation of the calendar to the change of season. He apponited Sosignes, a Greek mathematician to devise a calendar on the Egyptian model. This Calender was known as 'Julian Calendar after the name of Julius Caesar. According to this new Calendar, a year consisted of 365 days with an extra day in every fourth February (leap year). The Calendar came into force from 1st January of 45 B.C. As per the name of Caesar, the name of one month in the Calendar was July. Right from that time, the world has accepted this Calendar.

Caesar as a Writer :

Julius Caesar was a writer per excellence. He wrote a book named the 'Commentaries'. From that book, information is gathered regarding the wars and campaigns of Julius Ceasar. He also wrote many books in Latin language which also reflect about his wars and politics. He was also the founder of the first newspaper of the world known as 'Acta Urbis'. Caesar's works had their literary value.

 

Death of Caesar :

The nobles of Rome could not tolerate the fame of Caesar. He did not pay respect praetors. Questors and other administrators. He ordered to erect his statute in Rome, the Roman kings. He ordered to worship his image which was installed in role of Quirnis. At Emphesus he struck a royal proclamation in which he declared himself as the saviour of mankind. His relation with Cleopatra was also not liked by the can people. The Roman nobles hatched a plot against him. They spread rumour mal illegitimate child born from Celopatra will be declared as king by Caesar. On of 44 B.C., the wife of Caesar denied him to go to the Senate. He did not care it and reached the Senate hall. He sat on the throne. Then twenty three conspirators grounded him as if to do him honour. Casca, one of the conspirators stabbed him at the back. Caesar saw his trusted friend Brutas among them and was astonished. He uttered, "Et tu Brute" or "You, too Brutus'. The conspirators stabbed him brutally and he feel dead on the floor of the senate hall.

The life of Julius Caesar was romantic. He excelled as a warrior, administrator, politician, writer and a reformer. For his achievements, he has left an indellible mark in annals of history.