ECONOMIC LIFE
With the
increase of geographical boundary, there was a corresponding growth in later
vedic period. As a result, the range and prospect of economic activities had
become remarkably wider.
Agriculture
Agriculture
was of economic necessity and the main basis of occupation. The articles d duce
included paddy, barley, wheat and various oil-seeds. Changes were brought in
the agriculture system by the invention of advanced implements. Cowdung was
used as man fields. Kshetrapati or God of the soil was worshipped for bumper
crops. Even He was offered sacrifices for good harvest.
Animal Husbandry
As a corollary to agriculture, animal
husbandry had its own significance. Rearing of cows, buffaloes, goats, sheep and
horses was a common feature. So pastoral lands were properly maintained. There
are also quite a few references to loss of harvest due to draught, floods etc.
in the vedic literature.
Art
and Craft
Trade and Commerce
i In Later Vedic Age, the Vaisya caste had taken the leading
role in the field of trade and commerce which had its manifestations both in
internal and external spheres. The chief commercial products were food grains,
dresses and forest products. Literary references affirm the emergence of a
hereditary mercantile class in due course. Further, the descriptions related to
rich land-owner community denote the system of ending money to the common
people. The presence of words like Runa (Loan) or Sresthins (rich merchants)
indicate the creation of guilds for commercial convenience. The medium of exchange
was Satamana, Nishka and Krushnala. Panini refers to Pana and Karsapana coins
in his writings.
Proper transport and
communication is an index of prosperous economy and the later. vedic Aryans
were not at all indifferent to this aspect. Rather several steps were
undertaken to make the system more effective. Donkeys and horses were the
beasts of burden. Chariots driven by bullocks and horses were meant for
transportation on land routes. Camels and elephants were in use at some places.
Lots of information
are found from Aitareya Brahmana (a part of vedic literature) related to Aryan maritime
activities. Boats and yachts were in vogue for oversea trade activities while
for unsmooth village roads a vehicle known as Bipatha was in practice.
Thus, political
stability, disciplined society, prosperous economy of Later Vedic Age had paved
the way for the emergence of Nagars and Janapadas like Mathura, Ayodhya, Kampilya, Prayag, Kuruskhetra etc.
Village and city, agriculture
and craft, internal and external trade- all these ingredients had brought into
existence a balanced economic system and a prosperous life style of the later
vedic Aryans.
POLITICAL ORGANISATION
The geographical boundary
was extended towards Eastern and Southern India in Later Vedic Age crossing the
limits of the Gangetic valley. Establishing their political supremacy from the
Himalaya up to Vindhya region, the Aryans created new kingdoms where they
introduced new forms of administration. Further, while extending the boundary
of their new kingdom, the .powerful rulers adopted grand titles like Samrat,
Ekrat, Adhinaj or Rajadhiraj as evident from vedic literature. By performing
Vajapeya, rajasuya and Asvamedha sacrifices or yajna they adorned themselves at
the pinnacle of power.
King and Kingship
Divine origin of
kingship was attributed to the rulers in the later vedic period. Still then the
king was determined to provide welfare administration to the subjects. As the
fountain head of justice, the king looked after judicial affairs of his
kingdom. At the same time, he was watchful towards giving relief to the people
from hunger, theft, poverty and diseases.
The post of kingship was hereditary. For an effective administrative
system, the king used to appoint persons of high integrity and noble character
from the first three castes that is. Brahmana, Kshatriya and vaisya of the
society. New officials marked their presence besides the Rig Vedic Purohit.
Gramani or senani. They were Suta or Charioteer, Sangahitri or treasurer, Bhagadugha
or tax collector,Takshana or carpenter and others. These officials were
extremely vigilant about maintaining a balanced administration by appointing
their subordinates.
Sabha and Samiti
The Sabha and Samiti
of Early Vedic Age had lost their importance over the time. Of course the kings
were not high-handed, rather discussions and arguments were made on various
aspects of administration in Sabha. Here the main role was played by Sabhapati and
the members were known as Sabhasad or Sabhasina. At times, the unruly members
were warmed for indiscipline. Proper rules and regulations were outlined for
any debate or discussion.
The structure and function Samiti was totally different from
Sabha. While Sabha was the lower chamber Samiti was relatively large in size
and number. It represented the voice of the people. At the same time, it gave
valuable suggestion to the king in matters of war and peace and if necessary
was not hesitant to criticize any wrong deeds of the king.
Collection of Revenue
Collection of Revenue was another main feature of later vedic
polity. Depending on the fertility of the soil 1/6th. 1/8th or even 1/1Oth of
the product was levied as taxes. The artisans used to give one day's free
service to the king in token of tax.
Judiciary
Judiciary had an
active role in Later Vedic Age. General peace was maintained through severe
punishment. Even death penalty was not rare for theft, robbery or taking
intoxicating drink etc. The son was supposed to be the heir-apparent to
father's property as per law. In. case of absence of a son, the daughter inherited
the paternal property.Thus, one important thing is be observed that in Later
Vedic Age, the process of forming big states was taking a concrete shape.
Naturally, the political and administrative organization were more efficient in
comparison to Early Vedic Age.
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